April, 1985

This bibliography lists publications on the formal, usually one or two dimensional training of fruit trees. Books on general fruit culture but containing specific and useful chapters on this specialty have been included. For the sake of relative completeness and because works in English are not numerous, illustrated French and German works of merit have also been included.

All these books include directions for the planting, pruning, bending, tying, nailing, pinching, etc. of fruit trees to give them an unnatural but useful shape. Aldous Huxley called espaliers 'crucified fruits'. By interfacing with their genetically programmed growth patterns, trees can be made to increase or hasten fruit production, optimize their fruit quality, cover walls, form hedges, grow into virtually any shape be it utilitarian, artistic or outright artificial. Aficionados distinguish between cordons (straight-stemmed and unbranched), palmettes (branches arranged fan-like) and espaliers (with "shoulders" i.e. horizontal extensions) which may also be combined in many intriguing ways.

Like much of our horticultural heritage, espaliering started in the medieval cloisters of central Europe. Monks requiring communion wine but living north of the range of open vineyards started to plant grapevines against their garden walls. From about the 13th century on noblemen and burghers adopted this practice in castles and towns where gardens were small but protected and walls abounded. Grapes, pears, and figs were grown, their branches trained at random to cover the walls for a maximum of exposure to the sun.

Espaliering proper, with horizontal shoulders and balanced symmetrical branching, is an invention by the French court gardeners of the 17th century. Ornamental as well as useful they became the 'in-thing' in formal gardening and in the language of the time "the principal ornament of gardens". European estate owners got crazy over them while French experts and amateurs produced book after book, many of them soon translated into Dutch, German, and, eventually, English.

Many advances in training techniques as well as frivolous 'refinements' evolved during the following two centuries until in the latter part of the 19th century a saturation point was reached. With the rise of scientific knowledge such as fruit tree physiology, the basic artificiality of formal training was recognized and rejected, and espaliers were reduced to curiosities, best left to amateurs.

In North America espaliering and other formal training has never been practiced to any extent. Aspiring rich such as Thomas Hancock of Boston ordered their espalier trees from abroad (1735). A. J. Downing mentions a few contemporary gardens but every edition of his The Fruits and Fruit Trees of America, from 1845 to 1900, also states that (formal) "training fruit trees is, thanks to our favorable climate, proceedingly entirely unnecessary in the greater part of the United States". It was not until 1929 that an American authored book, Ornamental Dwarf Fruit Trees by Eberhard Abjornson of Albany, NY was published on the subject. His message in a nutshell, "As is the case with a trained animal, so it is with a dwarf fruit tree -- painstaking watchfulness, care and training will give wonderful results."

On a personal note: The most contemporarily instructive and useful of the 75 books listed below is that by Edmunds (#25). I am now securing the copyright from Mr. Edmund's estate and plan to publish a revised edition in a small number of copies. Price per copy will be around $15. Anybody interested?

Bibliography

1. Abercrombie, J. The Complete Wall Tree Pruner, or Principles of Pruning and Training all Sorts of Wall Fruit Trees and Espaliers. London: 1783.

2. Abjornson, E. Ornamental Dwarf Fruit Trees. New York: 1929.

3. Anderson, J. The New Practical Gardener. London: 1875.

4. (Anonymous) The Origin of the Espalier. 1905. Flora and Sylva III, 27.

(No instructions but interesting background information.)

5. Atkinson, R. Dwarf Fruit Trees Indoors and Outdoors. New York: 1972.

6. Bade, E. Praxis Im Obstgarten. Berlin:1930.

7. Baltet, Ch. Traite de la culture fruitiere. Paris: 1889.

8. Boettner, J. Spalier und Edelobst. 2nd ed., Frankfurt: 1915.

9. Bonnefons, N. De. Le Jardinier Francais. Paris: 1651.

(Later editions lack illustration of an espalier in course of preparation.)

10. Boyceau, J. Traite du jardinage. Paris: 1683.

11. Brehaut, T.C. Cordon Training of Fruit Trees, Diagonal, Vertical, Spiral, Horizontal. London: 1860. (The Boston edition has a supplement by C. M. Hovey.)

12. Bretaudeau, J. Atlas d'arboriculture fruitiere. Vol. 2, Paris: 1963.

13. Bush, R. Tree Fruit Growing. Rev. ed. by E. G. Gilbert. Harmondsworth: 1962.

14. Calvel, S. Anweisung zur Erziehung, Pflege and Schnitt der Obstbaeume am Spalier.2nd ed. Prague: 1812.

15. Cardinal, G. Le Jardinier Royal. Paris: 1661. (This work has also been attributed to R. A. D'Andilly)

16. Champagnat, P.The Pruning of Fruit Trees... Ed. & transl. by N. B. Bagenal. London: 1954.

17. Cobbett, W. The English Gardener. 2nd ed., London: 1833. (His American Gardener, New York, 1821 or 1846, has no espaliering instructions.)

18. D'Albret, R. La taille des arbres fruitiers. Paris: 1858.

19. De La Quintinye, M. Instruction pour les jardins fruitiers et potagers, Paris, 1690.

20. De La Quintinye, M. The Complete Gardener. 5th ed. London: 1710. (Now compendiously abridged and made more useful by George London and Henry Wise).

21. De La Riviere & Du Moulin. Methode pour bien cultivar les arbres a fruit et pour elever des treilles. Paris: 1728.

22. Delbard, G. Les beaux fruits de la France. Paris: 1947.

23. De Noter, L. L'horticulture moderne: Le fruitier. Paris: 1897.

24. Duhamel de Monceau. Traite des arbres fruitiers. Paris: 1768 or 1782.

25. Edmunds, A. Espalier Fruit Trees, Their History and Culture. Melbourne: 1955.

26. Fish, T.D. The Hardy Fruit Book. London: 1881.

27. Gaucher, N. Handbuch der Obstkultur. Berlin: 1908.

28. Genders, R. The Complete Handbook of Fruit Growing. London: 1976.

29. Gibault, G. Notice sur un tableau du Musee du Louvre et l'origine des espaliers. 1905. J. Soc. Nat. Hort. France. 113-118. (No instructions but interesting background information.)

30. Giordano, L. Greffe et taille des arbres en 10 lecons. Paris: 1976.

31. Goethe, R. Die Obst und Traubenzucht an Mauern, Hauswaenden and im Garten. Berlin, 1900.

32. Gressent. L'arboriculture fruitiere. 4th ed. Sannois & Paris, 1869.

33. Hardy, A.A. Der Obstbaumschnitt...Behandlung der feineren Obstsorten am Spalier. Bearbeitet von H. Jaeger. 2nd ed. Leipzig: 1860.

34. Harrison, Ch. A Treatise on the Culture and `Management of Fruit Trees. 2nd ed. London: 1825.

35. Hitt, T. A Treatise on Fruit Trees. 2nd ed. London: 1757.

36. Knippel, H.K. Taschenbuch fuer den Obstbau. Esslingen: 1940.

37. Kobel, F.& Spreng, H. Neuzeitliche Obstbautechnik. Bern: 1949.

38. Le Gendre, A. La Maniere de Cultiver les Arbres Fruitiers. Paris: 1652.

39. Le Gloru, P. & Boulay, H. Methodes modernes de conduite des arbres fruitiers. Paris: 1965.

40. Lelieur, Conte La Pomone Francaise, ou, traite des arbres fruitiers tailles et cultives. Paris: 1842.

41. Leuthardt, Henry. (Nurseries, Inc.) Handbook and Catalog ...Dwarf Fruit Trees... Espalier Trained Fruit Trees. (Address: East Moriches, L.I., NY 11940)

42. Loeschning, J. Praktische Anleitung zum rationellen Betriebe des Obstbaues. 7th ed. Vienna: 1946.

43. Loose, H. Neuzeitliche Obstspaliers. Munich: 1957.

44. Lorette, L. La taille Lorette. 2nd ed. Versailles, 1914.

45. Lorette, L. The Lorette System of Pruning. Translated by W. R. Dykes. London: 1925. (Various later English and U. S. reprints.)

46. Lucas, E. Die Lehre vom Baumschnitt. 3rd ed. Ravensburg: 1874.

47. Maahs, E. Spalierbaeume and Loretteschnitt. Gelnhausen: 1961.

48. Maclean, G.A. The Pillar System of Intensive Apple Production. Abingdon: 1948.

49. Malot, F. L'education du pecher en espalier. Paris, 1841.

50. McIntosh, C. The New and Improved Practical Gardener and Modern Horticulturist. London: 1865.

51. Menet, G.Taille et conduite des arbres fruitiers. Paris: 1863.

52. Patience, H. Cordon Culture of Apples. England, abt. 1935.

53. Pekrum, A. Anfaengerfragen im Obstbau. Erfurt: 1913.

54. Perkins, H.O. Espaliers and Vines for the Home Garden. Princeton, 1964.

55. Pont, A. Taille fruitiere par 1'image. Paris, 1977.

56. Riviere, A. Traite d'arboriculture fruitiere. Villefranche:1928.

57. Robinson, W. The Parks, Promenades and Gardens of Paris. London: 1861. (No instructions for, but many illustrations of espaliered fruit trees. Fewer illustrations in later editions.)

58. Rochol, A. Die Kunst Zwergobstbaeume and unter diesen besonders Spalierbaeume zu erziehen. 2nd ed. Leipzig: 1805. (later ed. 1847).

59. Royal Horticultural Society. The Fruit Garden Displayed. London: 1951. (Also

later editions.)

60. Rubens, F. Der Obstbaum am Spalier. Leipzig: 1850.

61. SaintBriac J. De L'arbre fruitier des jardins. Paris: 1884.

62. Sattler, H. Baumobst im Garten. Stuttgart: 1966.

63. Schaal, G. Das Obstbuch. Stuttgart: 1926.

64. Schabol, R. La Theorie du jardinage. Paris: 1774.

65. Southwick, L. Dwarf Fruit Trees. New York: 1948.

66. Taylor, N. Fruit in the Garden. New York: 1954.

67. Thompsum. C.R. Pruning Apple Trees. London: 1966. (Single cordons & pillars.)

68. Thompson, R. The Gardener's Assistant: Practical and Scientific. London: 1859.

69. Triquel, R. Instructions pour les Arbres Fruictiers. Paris: 1653.

70. Tukey, H.B. Dwarfed Fruit Trees. New York: 1964. (Various later reprints by Cornell University Press.)

71. Vasseur, U. Taille des arbres en espalier. Paris: 1851.

72. Whitehead, S. B. Fruit from Trained Trees. London: 1955.

73. Wright, J. The Fruit Grower's Guide. London: 1985.

74. Wright, H.J. The Fruitgrower's Guide. London: 1920. (Revised ed. of above.)

75. Wright, W. P. Pictorial Practical Fruit Growing. London: 1907